Monday, September 30, 2019

Workforce Diversity and the impact SHRM has towards Competitive Advantage

Workforce Diversity covers a wide variety of differences, which include race, gender, age, culture, nationality, religion, sexuality, interests, needs and desires (Hartel & Fujimoto, 2000). In order to explain workforce diversity in depth, this essay will utilise Race/Ethnicity as the key diversity characteristic, discussing the various theories and practices used in Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) to develop and manage diversity. In order to achieve increased organisational performance, a strategic plan must be implemented to position people throughout the organisation; and to manage these diverse cultures and ethnic backgrounds, and nurture their creativity and innovation, diverse recruitment and training is undertaken. Through the use of the diverse labour pool available when recruiting, an organisation can benefit from the different skills and knowledge obtained by the diverse employees. Secondly, their creativity, innovation network range, uniqueness and rarity, serve as a means of giving the organisation unique resources and processes that competitors are unable to produce or replicate, resulting in the organisation benefiting from a human capital based competitive advantage. This essay discusses workforce diversity, competitive advantage, diversity orientation, diversity openness, and effects of diversity on team and individual performance, and diversity management. Due to the effects globalisation has on the organisations today, organisations must diversify the methods in which they manage their human resources and establish a competitive advantage to compete in the current global market. By defining the presence of differences among members of social units (Jackson et al. , 1995, as cited in D’Netto & Sohal, 1999), different types of diversity can be identified and the groups can be categorised in order to manage them effective and efficiently. According to H?rtel and Fujimoto (2000), Workforce diversity is categorised into two dimensions: Observable differences and Underlying differences. Firstly, observable differences take into account the diverse characteristics such as race, gender, age, verbal/non-verbal behaviours. Secondly, underlying difference encapsulates less observable differences such as values/beliefs, sexual orientation, skills/knowledge, and religion. These two dimensions contribute to the influence of the process and outcomes of many organisations. As suggested by Ayoko and H?rtel, impact of diversity of workgroups has been a focus for most studies on diversity; however, in diversity studies from Cox and Blake (1991) and Jackson (1992), cultural heterogeneity differences in race, ethnicity and national origin have been the focal point. Experiences of lower cohesion and social integration (Hambrick, 1994), more conflict, higher turnover, less trust, less job satisfaction, more stress, more absenteeism, and more communication difficulties ( Alder, 1991; O’Reilly et al. 1992; Zenger and Lawrence, 1989) are shown as the key comparisons in the research between diverse workgroups and homogeneous groups. Diversity has both positive effects such as increasing opportunity for creativity and negative effects such as increasing the likelihood of dissatisfaction and failure to identify with one’s workgroup (Milliken and Martin, 1996). Richard Florida (2004, 2005; Lee et al. 2004) argues that diversity influences economic comp etitiveness directly by fostering creativity and innovation, which are elements for promoting rarity and unique ideas and concepts, giving an organisation an advantage in its market. Organisations that acknowledge workforce diversity and its different viewpoints, and facilitate unique and creative approaches to problem solving, increase creativity and innovation within the company, leading to increased organisation performance and competitive advantage. By utilising the diversity and realising its potential, organisations are able to attract and retain the best talent available, reduce costs due to lower turnover and fewer lawsuits; enhanced market understanding and market ability; greater creativity and innovations; better problem solving; greater organisational flexibility, better decision making, and better overall performance (Cox, 1993; Cox and Blake, 1991; Cox, 1991; Robinson and Dechant, 1997; Carlozzi, 1999; Griscombe and Mattis, 2002; McAllister, 1997; Watson et al. 1993). Allan et al. (2007) suggests the negative effects of diversity to organisational performance such as lower employee satisfaction and higher turnover (O’Reilly et al. , 1989), creating a sense of detachment (Tsui et al. , 1992), lower cohesiveness, and difficulties in communications, and intergroup conflict and tension (Richard et al. , 2003; Cox, 1993). These effects of poor diverse planning and management would have severe and damaging results for the organisation. The use of Strategic Human Resource Management and Diversity Management are used to manage the broad definition of diversity, inclusive of everyone and values the differences that each individual brings to the organisation. The need for a broader definition is recognised by Loden (1993), realising that theories only based on affirmative action and equal employment opportunity tend to focus only on women and minorities which result in organisation efforts that are sectioned with the outcome of other groups feeling disenfranchised. Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) uses people as one of its components to gain competitive advantage. To be able to retain this advantage, the resources must remain scarce and hard to duplicate, have the inability to be directly substituted, and enable companies to pursue opportunities (Barney, 1991; Boyd & Wright, 1992). The key to a competitive advantage is how well the human resources work within the company (Pfeffer, 1994), leading to the creation of value, hard to imitate, and is rare which in turn increases sustainability of the competitive advantage. As the global market and its demographic characteristics of its customers change, so must an organisation’s to retain a competitive edge in the market (Cox, 1994). As communities become more multicultural, organisations must change their human resource structure so that it is aligned with the customer’s needs, as the organisation span widens globally, employees are then needed to understand the customer’s references and requirements (Cox & Blake, 1991). In order to maximise diverse employees, Diversity-oriented Human Resource Management (HRM) is utilised and is achieved through the implementation of HRM policies. By strategically focusing on processes such as employee attraction and recruitment, retainment, training and development, and organisational alignment (Denton, 1992; H?rtel & Fujimoto, 2010; Rosen & Lovelace, 1991), diverse employees can be promoted to assist an organisation to manage the challenges the come with today’s diverse marketplace. Problems arise for HRM when implementing diversity initiatives, such as convincing top management that the initiatives will benefit the organisation. Management can see the diverse initiatives as being too expensive, production may be reduced and disruption the workplace (D’Netto & Sohal, 1999). On the other hand, diverse-oriented organisations not only accept diversity, they also recognise it as an integral part of the organisation (Richard & Johnson, 2001). The key aspects of diversity orientation: work design, staffing, training, and compensation are all embedded with the foundation of diversity, thus being valued as the core part of the organisation. It is through the bundling of the HRM policies and practices that direct the organisation towards diversity and diversity management. The organisation activities of training and development, work design, staffing, and compensation programs need to all supporting and reinforcing diversity for the constitution of diversity orientation to be successful. Coinciding with the organisational activities suggested previously, procedural fairness must be undertaken so that both majority and minority groups do not experience a sense of feeling left out. Diversity orientation is a rewarding tool when striving for competitive advantage; however, diversity orientation is not universal. The effectiveness of diversity orientation involves a substantial commitment of resources and a willingness to experience inefficiencies for a time, although through persistence, this tolerance for inefficiency may be of great benefit for organisations desiring innovation, high-commitment work environments, and the ability to face dynamic environments. To be able to effectively manage diversity, the implementation of SHRM policies and procedures regarding recruitment and training must first be undertaken. Problems need to be identified so that the correct policies and procedures can be put into place. D’Netto and Sohal (1999) suggest several â€Å"best practices† be used to improve workforce diversity management during recruiting and selection; job descriptions and selection progress that cover job relevant duties, qualifications, and experience and comply with anti-discrimination legislation. Successful organisations can benefit from orkforce diversity by creating an organisation environment which attracts people from diverse labour markets. A competitive edge is promoted by selecting the right people for the correct task regardless of race (Cornelius, 1999). Through recruitment, human capital is used as a driver for competitive advantage by selecting diverse individuals with specific, unique, and rare skills, increa ses the efficiency and effectiveness of an organisation, exploiting market opportunities, and neutralise potential threats (Barney, 1991; Ulrich & Lake, 1991). Human capital that is not readily available in the labour market and not easily duplicated by other organisations provides a potential source of competitive advantage (Snell, Youndt & Wright, 1996). Management needs to proactively communicate the organisation’s commitment and reasons for valuing diversity, invest in training, socialisation, and other efforts to manage conflicts effectively (Richard et al. , 2002). Once the right people have been employed it is then up to Human Resource management to implement diversity orientated training, helping to retain the diverse workforce and to focus on the organisation as a whole, creating an environment where clear, unambiguous policies and procedures are initiated. Training can create an awareness of certain traps and provide strategies for addressing any underlying issues (Barry & Bateman, 1996). A well implemented training program will provide employees with a better understanding of each other’s race, culture, gender, religion, and sexual preferences. It will help those who are not from diverse backgrounds identify the strengths and opportunities that are supplied by the minority groups. Communication problems can be addressed through proper diverse training, helping employees understand that minority groups are handled differently according to their skills and knowledge as opposed to the employment due to their minority status. The benefit of diversity-orientated training is that it reduces the amount of bias from both employees and management, allowing the diverse groups to be accepted for the skills and knowledge they offer, which in turn, leads to a more productive, innovative, and creative organisation and promotes cohesion and cooperation between colleagues (H?rtel & Fujimoto, 2010), resulting in human resources and practices that are of a competitive nature. The first two theories Social Identity and Similarity Attraction both dentify the negative effects that diversity can have on an organisation and how it can also affect the competitive advantage, in the form of human resource. Firstly, Festinger’s (1954) studies of Social Identity theory focus on the development of social identity which results in the comparison of individuals towards other group members. The outcome of these comparisons can result in the individual with either a positive or negative self-image (Richard & Johnson, 2001), an d desire to be part of the group or wanting to leave a group. Social Identity theory suggests that being part of a group creates a feeling of collective representation of self-identity and behaviour. According to Tajfel (1982), â€Å"the psychological process associated with this theory generates distinct group behaviour, such as, solidarity within a group, conformity to group norms, and discrimination against out groups†. The second theory of Similarity Attraction (Byrne, 1971) is reliant upon demographic characteristics such as race. Similarities are perceived by individuals and compared to other members of a group, fostering trust, mutual cooperation and interaction. These effects lead to sub groups which, in turn, lead to less effective team function as a whole. Finally, theory that describes the positive attributes to diversity is the Information Processing and Decision Making Theories (Gruenfeld et al. , 1996), suggesting that decision making and exchanging of information are improved within groups that are more diverse. Benefits arising from diversity are their ability to use a greater variety of resources, allowing the use of more diverse networks. The key to dealing with all of these theories of diversity are correct usage of Diversity Management, allowing management to identify the characteristics of each and deal with them accordingly, in doing so conflict, absenteeism, and discrimination are reduced, allowing for cohesion, creativity and innovation to be produced. Competitive advantage, organisation effectiveness, increased productivity and coherent organisational environment are all outcomes that can be acquired through the correct implementation of Diversity Management. These can be achieved through the building of specific skills, creating of policies and drafting practices (D’Netto & Sohal, 1999), which in turn, get the best results from every employee. The management of diversity can be identified as the leveraging and use of cultural differences in people’s skills, ideas nd creativity to contribute to a common goal in such a way that an organisation can achieve an advantage above that of the organisations competition (Deversky, 1994; Fernandez, 1993; Morrison, 1992). The management of diverse groups is becoming increasingly difficult. Globalisation is a large contributor to workforce diversity, increased migration as a result of the opening of foreign borders, especially from different countries where people were originally migration from, resulting in a wider span of people with diverse racial/ethnic backgrounds populating the country. In order to achieve competitive advantage through the use of diversity and SHRM, ethnic diverse individuals/employees must be strategically managed so that their diverse attributes can be utilised within the organisation, leading to organisation performance and efficiency. Diversity Management focuses on the inclusion of the full span of diverse employees, allowing them to perform to their full potential, ensuring that their wellbeing, both individually and in the organisation remain positive. Introducing training, development, and affective leadership are concepts that help develop diverse employees. According to H?rtel and Fujimoto (2010), it is reported that employees working in a diversity managed organisation have an improved work-life and higher cohesion among employees. Diversity Management has many positive effects which include understanding that minority viewpoints foster quality of thought, performance, and decision making (Nemeth, 1992), and that groups made up of larger diverse backgrounds and characteristics produce a wider variety of ideas, solutions, and alternatives than those groups with similar demographic characteristics (Bantel & Jackson, 1989; Jackson, 1992). Once these viewpoints are identified and understood, procedures and practices can be implemented to embed their skills and knowledge resulting in better organisational performance. Task conflict, when using diverse groups to problem solve complex, non-routine tasks, results in disagreements amongst members about task, including viewpoints ideas and opinions, utilising their skills, knowledge, abilities, and perspectives, leading to more complete analysis of the issues and improved decision-making and performance (Jehn, 1995; Pelled, 1996). In conclusion to the discussion of the previous associative approaches to managing diversity, the essay found limitations as a result of the quantity of differences that incorporate diversity, it would be limited to arguing the characteristic of Race/Ethnicity and the effects that workforce diversity has on its contribution to competitive advantage. The review concluded that the need for a contingency approach is needed to manage diversity effectively, as problems are constantly arising due to the ever changing demographical characteristics of today’s global market. Individuals from diverse cultures are migrating to areas in which they previously were not. This results in the need for continuously updated training and recruitment with placement of diverse individuals into positions to effectively communicate and network with global customers.

Sunday, September 29, 2019

Communication and Presenting Information

What is active listening? Active listening is a person’s ability and willingness to listen and understand. Often we people talk to each other. We might not listen at a time because lack of attentiveness, which can distract the speaker. In way active listening can be called as responding to another person that develops mutual understanding. Active listening is process in which the listener paraphrases in its own words what the speaker had said to confirm or clarify of accuracy of the message. Active listening involves listening with your head and your heart; that is, you listen to the content of the message but also the feelings behind the message. The skill of active listening involves paying attention with empathy to the listener, as opposed to distracted denying, cynical or ostrich behavior. New session leaders of alcoholics anonymous meetings are advised to’†¦. Take cotton form your ears and put it in your mouth’. (Hogan, 2000) Listening can wrongly be vi ewed as a passive activity; the speaker talks and the listener listen’s. The listener is silent and passive and the speaker is active and verbal. When the speaker finishes its talking, the assumption is that the message has been accurately received by the listener, with no observation participation or effort active listening statement. â€Å"The most basic of all human needs is the need to be understood†. (Fujishin,1997) Listening does not mean just have sit with the mouth shut stirring at the person. A dead body can do that. It is an active process which requires participation to understand fully the meaning of a communication. Listening actively involves clarifying, paraphrasing, giving feedback. Paraphrasing: state in your own word what the speaker had said in the talk. It is sign of good listening. It keeps the listener busy trying to understand and know that other person means rather than blocking. Clarifying: it goes along with paraphrasing. It means asking questions until the listener get the correct picture. In order to understand fully what the speaker said. Clarifying assist the listeners to sharpen its listening focus so that the listener hears more than vague generalities. Giving Feedback: feedback is what active listening depends on. After paraphrasing and clarifying the listener gives an example what had been said and hopefully understands it. This is the point at which the listener can talk about reaction. In freely way the listener share its thought, felt or sensed. Active listening is really one of the mostly physical and mentally challenging aspects of facilitation. Listening sometime does not come easy for some people not because they are not willing to listen but because they are not able to do so. Actually their mind does not come up with the total picture because some people see the world in one dimension. This inability to listen using both side of the brain can cause misinterpretation, miscommunication and miscalculation. As a result the listener with in ability could not be able to deal with logic of a relationship and also with the emotional component. Therefore this unbalanced use of brain often results in the inability of the listener understand all the essential signs form the person speaking. Therefore active listening require usage both side of brain. Unfortunately there are few people who are able to understand this fact who instead see this skill in one reflecting use of the both side of brain. Taking holistic approach toward listening requires special discipline or rules on the part of the listener. The basis reason is that many listeners tend to fall into their own comfort zones by in taking what they want to hear and skipping rest of the important data and facts. As a result hearing selectively can lead to incorrect conclusion of data and information. Listening is like art were there are opportunities for huge errors. â€Å"This information is taken from the Source: Kliem (2007) â€Å"Effective Communications for Project Management† CRC Press Feature of active listening Active listening motivates the person to listen carefully which eventually motivates the speaker to talk effectively. Active listening helps the speakers to identify that whether the listener is taking afford to understand thing with any distraction and helps the listener to clear their doubt and revert back the message to the speaker in order to give idea that he as understood. The distraction is big treat while listening and speaking, were the listener forgets the point or get miss leaded about speaker’s talk or message, were as speaker also gets frustrated and won’t put his best effort. The active listener use both side of brain. They see the skill as one reflecting the use of the right or left side of the brain. The left side of the brain highlights facts, organizational, logical reasoning and thinking and discipline and accuracy in thought. It is extremely goal and analysis oriented. Active listening exclusively from this viewpoint can result in ignoring the important emotional message of the speaker: for example the importance on calculating metric is left brain activity. Focusing on scheduling and cost performances index as a measure of success is a prime example of left brain thinking. The right side of the brain highlights emotional and sensory view. Imaging and imagining are two quiet actions of this side of the brain. The importance is on nonverbal communication and impulsive behavior. Active listening from this view point can result in ignoring or skipping the important data and fact and being influenced by the speaker. Most common example of active listening is boards meeting of the company were each directors or shareholders as listener listen actively because every decision raised in the company is important and should be planned in order to achieve objective and goals. BARRIERS OF ACTIVE LISTENING â€Å"Man inability to communicate is a result of his failure to listen effectively, skillfully and with understanding to other human beings†. Carl roger,1850) The biggest barrier of the active listening is the unconscious nature of the process. When we listen to take in information from all of our sense continuously and for which automatic we give a meaning to what we take in. Responding without thinking for the first is easy, as there are some people who use very little of their full listen ing capacity because they do not intentionally put their full energy into it. However there are barriers to listening beside the environmental barriers. Some of the common see barriers are: Negative and positive trigger: there are certain words, sound, phrases; gesture that can draw out an emotional response from the person. A positive trigger is phrases or word that produces a good feeling for the listener and negative trigger is a phrase or word that produces feeling such as anger. The trigger causes when a person reacts before for thinking. The listener just by hearing few words has a preprogrammed understanding and response because the trigger cuts off the information gathering actions of the senses and can show the way to greatly mistaken estimation. This trigger interferes with the listeners listening because the listeners immediately change their attention to the emotions that they are experiencing. Any effective listener can identify their own trigger in order to gain their conscious control of their action and listen more effectively. ?Difference in word definition: No two people have same meaning for the words or phrase. These differences in meaning can lead to misinterpreting and misunderstanding. A responsible person first check with the speaker and helps groups builds up harmony on the definition of important words and phrases. Personal issues: every person has important personal issues beside the work life. Sometimes these issues want a huge attention and take a lot of energy which make the person tough to actively listen at some moment. A Responsible person first observes the effect of the personal issues and then takes time to deal with them. When it is time to listen, they intentionally remind themselves to use active listening process. For example a manager who is going through break up found it difficult to listen during board meeting. But his boss was supportive and understanding; however at that moment the manager should put his personal matters at a side and meet his obligations of the organization. ?Poor physical surroundings: poor physical surrounding involves Noisy, distracting or uncomfortable places and situation make it hard to listen and also make it difficult to focus on what the speaker is explaining. ?Tiredness: it becomes difficult to listen actively when a person is tried. Active listening requires active or alert mind and energetic body to considerate. A student in order to be active listener should get good night sleep before attending the early morning lecture so that the student considerate without any tiredness. ?Filter: Your beliefs, values, assumption, expectation, past experiences and interest all these things interfere with active listening. There are subtle and thus are hard to detect. For instant, think as if your enemy sitting beside you, eventually you will be thinking some else rather that listening to the speaker. Importance’s of active listening Active listening is an important skill that can bring changes in people. Changes as such in attitude toward themselves and others and also bring changes in your vital value and physical philosophy. People who contain active listening skill are more emotionally mature, less defensive, have more experiences, more independent and less demanding. The people who listen sensitively tend to listen themselves with more care so they are make clear about what they are thinking and feeling. Some of common Importance of active listening is: ? It helps you to focus on one task without any distraction and enable you to get clear picture of what speaker try to explain. It helps you to develop your interest in listening and keep you active and alert. ?It keeps you way from misinterpretation and misunderstanding of idea of other person because understanding other person is very difficult. ?It helps to develops trust between listener and speaker. It isn’t very often an individual is given the opportunity to share what’s really on his mind or deep in his heart without be attacked and rescued. This is one of the most important rewards of actively listening for understanding where the speaker trusts you. Conclusion Listening well is an essential component of every successful person. Active listening takes a lot of energy and very irritating to mirror every statement during conversation. At some extend, it can drive person crazy. A person should keep active listening for those occasions when the person require clarifying the speaker’s message, the speaker want to feel understanding of listeners. Active listening just encourages a person to set aside the trouble of self talk, in order to get mixed up with what the others are relating and to experience totally what they feeling. You will be shocked to discover that when you focus on your speaker rather than yourself, it become far easier for you to think of things to say. As said by Fritz Perls â€Å"the pictures of the world do not enter us automatically, but selectively. We don’t see, we look for, search, scan for something. We don’t hear all the sounds of the world, we listen†. References 1. Hoppe(2007) â€Å"Active Listening: Improve Your Ability to Listen and Lead† London Publisher: Center for Creative Leadership 2. Ivey , Bradford Ivey & Zalaquett (2009) â€Å"Intentional Interviewing and Counseling: Facilitating Client Development in a Multicultural Society† Publisher: Cengage Learning 3. Jones (2008) â€Å"Introduction to Counselling Skills: Text and Activities† Publisher: SAGE Publications Ltd. 4. Moyet(2005) â€Å"Understanding the nursing process: concept mapping and care planning for students† Publisher: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins 5. Weaver & Farrell (1997) â€Å"Managers as facilitators: a practical guide to getting work done in a changing workplace† Publisher: Berrett-Koehler Publishers 6. Fujishin(2007) â€Å"Creating effective groups: the art of small group communication† Publisher: Rowman & Littlefield 7. Kliem(2007) â€Å"Effective Communications for Project Management† Publisher: CRC Press 8. McKay, Davis & Fanning (2009) â€Å"Messages: The Communication Skills Book† Publisher: New Harbinger Publications 9. Spencer & Pruss (1997) â€Å"The professional secretary's handbook† Publisher: Barron's Educational Series 10. Farrell & Weaver (2000) â€Å"The Practical Guide to Facilitation: A Self-Study Resource† Publisher: Berrett-Koehler Publishers 11. Garner(1997) â€Å"Conversationally speaking: tested new ways to increase your personal and social effectiveness† Publisher: McGraw-Hill Professional 12. http://www. gordontraining. com/artman2/uploads/1/ActiveListening_RogersFarson. pdf (accessed 6 august 2009)

Saturday, September 28, 2019

American Dream Essay Research Paper Listening to

American Dream Essay, Research Paper Listening to the panel treatment on the American Dream helped me to recognize several things about past, current, and future coevalss. I found it interesting that a bulk of the great-grandparents, grandparents, and parents worked in either a mill or a factory, or on a farm. Several of the adult females besides stayed at place to raise the kids. None of the panellists attended college except for Sam, Jo, and Edwin. Sam and Jo were both the first in their households to go to college, while Edwin? s gramps and male parent besides attended college. It surprises me that there were no involvements in earlier coevalss to foster their instruction. I am non certain if it was merely a deficiency of involvement in fostering their instruction, or if since they all could hold occupations working on farms or in mills, they all found it unneeded to travel on with it. It? s astonishing how all these people and their households came from all different parts of the universe, each of them with their ain vision of their American Dream. It? s interesting how the farther we move in front in coevalss, each one truly seems to bloom more than the old 1. All of the above merely goes to demo how everyone? s construct of the American Dream is different, and what may suit one person and make them happy, might not be suitable for someone else. The panelists all agreed that they have achieved their version of the Dream in the life they lead, and that they would like for their children to make their own decisions and follow their own paths and journeys. They also all agreed that the American Dream is reality ? alive and well in society. All of the panelists basically defined the American Dream along the same lines, just using different terms. I agree with almost every concept that was mentioned regarding the American Dream. I believe that it is an evolving thing, depending on where we are at a given point in time, and as we grow older it changes. I certainly agree that the American Dream gives us choices?we have the freedom of choice, we have the opportunities. We all have the choice to be what we want to be and to go out and get more from this world. I would describe the American Dream in one word?happiness. Edwin said it best stating, ?The Ameri can Dream is happiness. Go where you are going to be happy and your Dream will be fulfilled. Don?t just go for materialistic things.? That was honestly the most powerful statement from the panel that really made me realize what I feel the American Dream is all about?happiness. It?s about bein

Friday, September 27, 2019

Corporal Pushment In Children Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Corporal Pushment In Children - Research Paper Example Some countries and states have legalized corporal punishment; however, in some states and countries, corporal punishment is banned. This paper discusses the issue of corporal punishment in detail. Corporal Punishment on Children Karem De Gouveia Mr. Roycraft ENC 1101- T November 15, 2011 De Gouveia i Outline I- Introduction Thesis: Corporal punishment as a sort of physical punishment is legalized in some states of the world while other states regard it disadvantageous for the children’s physical and mental growing up. II- Definition of Corporal Punishment A. Characteristics of physical abuse B. The goal of corporal punishment III- Kinds of Corporal Punishment A. Domestic punishment B. How is the corporal punishment in the judicial system IV- Views of Different Schools of Thoughts A. Different views on corporal punishment. B. The point of view in the state of Texas C. As per the law of New Hampshire V- Impact of Corporal Punishment on Children A. Positive Impact B. Negative Imp act De Gouveia 1 Corporal Punishment in Children Physical abuse of children at the hands of their parents and / or guardian is considered corporal punishment. It is considered as a sort of constructive punishment inflicted upon children to discipline them. In many developed countries of the world, parents / guardians cannot be prosecuted for physical assault under their laws. Even in the developing countries, there is no law which makes parents / guardians answer to the law enforcing agencies for spanking or slapping their children. Physical abuse is a part of corporal punishment. According to Gershoff (2002), â€Å"Physical abuse is characterized by the infliction of physical injury as a result of punching, beating, kicking, biting, burning, shaking or otherwise harming a child. The parent and caretaker may not have intended to hurt the child; rather the injury may have resulted from over- discipline or physical punishment.† (pp. 540). Regardless, if there was an intention t o hurt the child or not, the child was hurt, and it can be considered physical abuse. Corporal punishment by its nature comprises domestic, academic and judicial punishments. Domestic punishment means children receive punishment from parents / guardian. With regard to academic institutions, students are punished by teachers / administrators at the elementary level. In the judicial system, corporal punishment is applied upon prisoners by the De Gouveia 2 superintendent of prison and other associated officials in line with the judgment of the court. The goal of corporal punishment is to place the people on the right track. It differs from people to people in terms of age. As far as the children are concerned, the parental corporal punishment proves effective at the initial period of life of a child if he / she is below the age of eighteen. To make a child good in behavior, he or she should be intimated for corporal punishment or corporal punishment should be inflicted upon as the expe rience may be. This has been legal in many schools of United States of America. However, Canada, Kenya, Korea, South Africa, New Zealand, Europe except France are exempted from such punishment. It has virtually vanished from the western world. However, it can be seen in Africa and Asia. (Straus & Donnelly 27) Different schools of thought may have different views on corporal punishment, but they agree on one thing that is the necessity to repair the attitudes of children. However, the method of causing harm may vary from

Thursday, September 26, 2019

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs as it relates to sexuality in older adults Research Paper

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs as it relates to sexuality in older adults - Research Paper Example The inclusion of air, water, food, excretion, sleep and homeostasis is understandable but many critics have argued that sex should not be included as the absence of the act does not result to severe consequences. Maslow, however, countered by arguing that sex is mandatory for the survival of the species. Aside from the perpetuation of our species, several researches have found that the importance of sex transcends this purpose. The common thread among these researches is the self-actualization realized thru sexual interaction and satisfaction. In the published study of Susan Sprecher of the Illinois State University involving premarital couples, sex and the satisfaction gained from the act was a major determinant of relationship satisfaction, level of affection and degree of commitment. As people commit sex and gain satisfaction, the quality of the relationship becomes more enduring leading to higher levels of moral values. In a study involving old Chinese people, Kwong and Kwan (2006) found that a higher level of active composure, general well-being and satisfaction when sexual intercourse is practiced. Sex was found to be instrumental to daily living and would compensate for the depressing effects of inadequate incomes and physical weakness. Another interesting study was that of Walters and Williamson (1998) who examined the importance of sex in people who had undergone amputation in the lower extremities. The study is significant in this paper because the participants were mostly old people. Results indicated that having sex reduces the feelings of powerlessness and depression associated with the disability. Amputees stated that they felt ‘whole’ again and that they can do anything in the world again. Old people also need a healthy body to overcome depressive tendencies and become positive thinkers. To do this, the immune system of their body should be in an excellent state. Charnetski and Brennan (2004) was able to

Effects of smoking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Effects of smoking - Essay Example The doctors of today are more conversant with the effects of smoking more than ever before. Cigarettes and tobaccos have high concentrations of nicotine. They have over 4000 chemicals, which are harmful to one’s body. One of the fatal cases recorded is lung cancer. In fact, over ninety percent of all cases of lungs complications are blamed on smoking. Heavy smokers are the most affected and end up contracting chronic cancer, which is difficult to treat, not to mention the medical expenses inherent. In addition, smokers are more likely to develop laryngeal cancer as compared to nonsmokers (Hanson, et al, 2006). In recent years, cases of heart diseases have been on the increase and according to research; smoking is a major contributor to the defect in question. Similarly, high blood pressure is common among smokers since cigarettes lead to increased heart rate by a good percentage. On the other hand, blood flow to body extremities including fingers and toes is reduced greatly, a condition that many people have ignored. The implications of these conditions may not be felt immediately but they may surface at a later stage, making treatment quite a task (Institute of medicine, 2010). We cannot talk about smoking effects without mentioning respiratory complications. These account for a large number of deaths every year. Statistics show that most of respiratory conditions have been associated with smokers than with non-smokers. Other effects associated with smoking include chronic coughing, impotence among men, shortness of breath, reduced fitness, early wrinkles formation, loss of appetite, among others (Owing, 2005). One of the most disturbing issues on smoking is that it affects even non-smokers. Second hand smoke is detrimental and has same implications as those of real smokers. Similarly, in pregnant women, cigarettes’ smoke may complicate the growth of the baby in the womb. Stillbirth, premature

Wednesday, September 25, 2019

Monopoly Power in the Computer Industry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Monopoly Power in the Computer Industry - Essay Example In a slack antitrust environment, Watson swiftly weeded out virtually all of IBM's once many electromechanical equipment rivals. To its huge credit, IBM and Tom Watson Jr. managed to retain this near-monopoly position through the long shift to totally electronic computing, creating the mainframe colossus of the 1960s and 1970s. Since then, monopoly power has been progressively and unavoidably dissipating. First arrived minicomputers, where IBM could never get more than a third of the business. Then, certainly came the PC and IBM's crucial decision to essentially pass its power on to Microsoft and Intel and, much less directly, to Cisco. As great as the power of these three companies is today, it's still restricted to a few relatively narrow industry segments that account for only a tiny share of total industry revenue. Further, even the joint global power of the three giants is nowhere near what IBM alone enjoyed in its halcyon days. Understandably, the computer business has become more competitive over time. But now the Internet has come up to finish off the job. Already, the emergence of non-PC devices and the invariably problematic plug-compatible chip competition have helped confine Intel. Now, the accelerating shift from packaged software to Web services promises to restrain Microsoft's once uncontrolled ambitions. Finally, the shift from in-house corporate networks to public carrier services will inescapably undo Cisco's still-iron grip on the data-communications-equipment industry. All three companies should continue to flourish tremendously, but their power has already begun to fade.People frequently ask who the next Microsoft or Intel will be. The simple answer is "No one." Although there will certainly be many huge new Internet companies, there probably won't be any major new monopolists.  Ã‚  

Tuesday, September 24, 2019

Doing Research in Business and Management Essay - 24

Doing Research in Business and Management - Essay Example Good financial management proved essential in achieving business goals, especially in relation to understanding financial statements that are critical to business success. Negotiation and communication skills from previous modules also proved useful in the business project module, particularly since these skills were invaluable in understanding how to deal with suppliers, customers, business associates, and employees (Heerkens, 2014: p28). Finally, knowledge about business legal issues was also applied because business projects are subject to various legal requirements like contracts with suppliers. My experiences working with the team on the project, especially our development as a virtual team, were particularly insightful. For example, it became increasingly evident as we progressed with the project that virtual team-working allows project team members to share information, decision-making, and innovation without the hazards, cost, and time of travel (Edmonson, 2012: p75). However, creating a virtual team was more difficult than I had initially anticipated. It was especially difficult to create high performance within the team without the required careful support, structuring, and attention to processes that enable teamwork to achieve its full potential. The most important challenges in making the virtual teamwork were leadership, management of conflict, relationship building, and effective communication. In relation to communication, it became increasingly important for the team leader to focus on processes for situation adaptation, especially given that the use of technolog y reduced the social presence and richness present in a face-to-face context (Gignac, 2013: p44).  Moreover, the initial building of high-quality relationships based on commitment, cooperation, respect, and trust was difficult despite its importance to the efficient functioning of teamwork.

Monday, September 23, 2019

Week 7 essays Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Week 7 essays - Essay Example It must be emphasized that their differences had main ideological basis. Americans of the Revolutionary and the constitutional period wrestled with a†¦question: does every increase in the powers of the government entails a loss of liberty for the governed? Thomas Jefferson believed that it did. His †¦rival Alexander Hamilton believed it did not. 1 It was due to this opposing approach towards democracy that something that the founding fathers had missed or rather disregarded at the Convention of 1787 was thrust to the forefront. It was this rivalry of differing political ideals that lead to the formation of the two party system in the United States. that such an arrangement had its pit falls, and keeping these inherent dangers and Thomas Jefferson with a number of like-minded politicians, like James Madison, who likewise were fed up with the conservative Hamiltonian stance in United States politics, in the year 1794 formed the Democratic Republican party (which is the precursor of the present Democratic Party and was formally named so under Andrew Jackson in 1826). The ideological difference between the two parties stemmed from the character of Alexander Hamilton who was a through and through Conservative Right-Wing politician. In lay man terms he stood for status quo, which by extension meant among many other things the continuation of slavery. Thomas Jefferson on the other hand was a Liberal Left-Wing politician. Jefferson believed in the ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity, and these ideas were instrumental in the French Revolution of 1789. It would not be wrong to say that Hamilton was a reactionary while Jefferson a progressive politician. This rift between the two political ideologies was the main cause behind the famous 12th Amendment which was passed in the year 1804 and laid down the foundations of the multi-party system in the United States. Further, Thomas Jefferson’s

Saturday, September 21, 2019

Dickens writes Oliver Twist Essay Example for Free

Dickens writes Oliver Twist Essay Dickens creates sympathy for Oliver and the other orphans throughout the first four chapters of the book. He does this by describing in depth the neglect, mistreatment and emotions of the children. There is a strong example of this at the end of the first chapter when Dickens writes Oliver cried lustily. If he could have known that he was an orphan, left to the tender mercies of church-wardens and overseers, perhaps he would have cried the louder. Oliver suffers dearly while living in the workhouse; he is quite regularly made an example of. One of the occasions he is made an example of is when he is forced to ask for more gruel by the other orphans. For doing this he is harshly beaten by cane in front of the other children and is then imprisoned. Oliver and the other orphans were beaten both mentally and physically, neglected and starved from birth, until either leaving the workhouse as slave laborers or dieing. Oliver is terrified of Mr.Gamfield he openly shows his emotion to the whole board of the workhouse when in chapter three he falls to his knees, praying that they would order him back the room, that they would starve him, beat him, kill him. He prays for all of this rather than them send him away with Mr. Gamfield In the time of workhouses the standard of living was near to none. The unwealthy basically had no choice to but to enter a workhouse. They would work for a roof and little food. All of the people in the workhouse had to sleep on the hard floor and receive poor medical attention. Overall the living condition were appalling, Charles Dickens uses irony to create a feeling of how bad the conditions where, a good example of this is that nearly every member of staff is overweight even them giving out the tiny amount of gruel to the orphans. Dickens attempts to create a feeling of pity for the orphans, by doing this we can see that he is trying to relive poverty, stop other people from going through what he went through. Dickens somehow manages to take a subject as important as poverty and put it across by using humor, and at the same time still manages to keep that feeling of seriousness.

Friday, September 20, 2019

Applications of Positivism in Social Research

Applications of Positivism in Social Research Scientific methodology in sociology, the study of the social world, is most often associated with what is known as the positivist approach. In this essay, to determine whether or not it is indeed possible to apply scientific methods to the study of the social world, I will analyse the strengths and weaknesses of positivist sociology. â€Å"As developed by Auguste Comte, positivism is a way of thinking based on the assumption that it is possible to observe social life and establish reliable, valid knowledge about how it works.† (Johnson p231) This established knowledge was then to be used to affect the course of social change and it would help improve humanity. Comte’s work was in part a reaction to the ‘anarchy’ that besieged France in the wake of the revolution. Comte sincerely believed that scientific rationality could temper the raw human emotions that had lead to such chaos. Sociology, in his definition (and others), literally the science of society, co uld apply such scientific rationalism, empiricism and positivism to social life, thus improving it and preventing continued anarchy. â€Å"Comte believed that social life is governed by underlying laws and principles that can be discovered through the use of methods most often associated with the physical sciences.† (Johnson p231) One would identify the methods of positivism thus; careful observation measurement; quantification; formalisation of concepts precision in definition; operationalisation of theoretical questions mathematisation (connects with all of the previous features; logic and systemisation of theory symmetry of explanation prediction; objectivity understood as value neutrality. â€Å"It consists in deliberately investigating phenomena with the expectations derived from the theory in mind and seeing whether or not the facts actually found agree with these expectations.† (Delanty p52) â€Å"If observed facts of undoubted accuracy will not fit any of the alternatives it leaves open, the system is in need of reconstruction.† (Delanty p53) Positivism, â€Å"Is above all a philosophy of science. As such, it stands squarely within the empiricist tradition. Metaphysical speculation is rejected in favour of positive knowledge based upon systematic observation and experiment. The methods of science can give us knowledge of the laws of coexistence.† (Marshall p510) However, as shall hopefully be shown later, these scientific methods can not show us anything about the inner ‘essences’ or ‘nature’ of things. Broadly speaking structuralism is, â€Å"Used loosely in sociology to refer to any approach which regards social structure (apparent or otherwise) as having priority over social action.† (Johnson p646) Positivism and structuralism are generally highly complementary, positivism effectively being the scientific methodology of structuralism. This can be observed in the works of Comte, Marx, Durkheim and the Vienna circle. Later theorists such as Parsons can also be described as both str ucturalist and positivist although in Parson’s case he does consider certain interpretivist sensibilities. Marx, Durkheim, Comte, the Vienna circle and many others all saw sociology as a science and all believed that social structure was the core component of society. â€Å"Perhaps one of the most important traits in naturalistic or positivistic sociology is the belief that social phenomena are patterned and are subject to deterministic laws much as are the laws governing the natural sciences. Sociological theory then becomes a quest for laws similar to the law of gravity or the law of material density in physics† (Poloma p3) The main difference between the social and natural worlds is that the subject of study in the social world is humanity. People, in basic terms, have a consciousness where as the subjects of the natural sciences, rocks or atoms or chemicals, do not. People are aware of themselves and their surroundings in a way that rocks, for example, are not. This, clearly, is a potential problem for positivist sociology. However, this problem is resolved, in positivist science, by arguing that the self-consciousness of human beings (the ability to think, act and feel) is not a significant factor in our ability to understand social behaviour. This, according to positivists, is because peoples behaviour is, at its genesis, always a reaction to some form of stimulation. This stimulation can be from their socialisation (as we shall see in Parsons work), or it can be something more direct like the need to earn a living or a confrontation with another human. This produces one of the criticisms of positiv ist sociology, as we shall see, action and the meaning placed on that action becomes unimportant for study, only the cause of the action, the stimuli, has any sociological value for positivists. The positivist view of sociology, of its aims, of its methods, is certainly a contentious one. Two of the first sociologists to question these methods, and the first that can be labelled as interpretivist, were Weber and Simmel. â€Å"Weber argues that sociology is not concerned with totalising explanations; only individuals have an ontological reality, society does not exist in that real sense, and so sociological explanations must be in terms of individual events and processes.† (Craib 1997 p51) Rickert’s term of Geisteswissenschaften (literally the sciences of the spirit/mind) greatly influenced Weber’s conception of what sociology should be. The ontological reality which Weber speaks of is that humans are very different from other natural beings. We have free will, an inner life, use symbols, possess language, live in culture and act meaningfully. This ontological reality ensures that humanity cannot be studied using positivist scientific methodology, or any other conventional scientific methodology, sociology must use other methods. While the natural sciences wish to explain natural events, sociology, as understood by Weber, Rickert or Simmel, wishes to understand social action. Social scientists should endeavour to understand social action in very much the same way as one attempts to understand other people, by communicating, through empathy, and through argument. These views are also associated with, and expanded upon, by the philosopher Peter Winch. (Winch 1958) As Weber states, â€Å"Even the knowledge of the most certain propositions of our theoretical sciences – e.g., the exact natural sciences or mathematics is, like the cultivation and refinement of the conscience, a product of culture.† (Delanty p110) In many ways the objective ‘fact’ of scientific enquiry is a fallacy. â€Å"Sociology differs from the natural sciences in that it does not deal with a pre given universe of objects. People attribute meaning to their social world and act accordingly.† (Baert p97) Weber, in his Methodology of The Social Sciences, points out that all knowledge of cultural reality is always from a particular point of view. The philosophical idea that there is no truth, only human opinion is prevalent in this argument. Simmel emphasises and expands upon this point, â€Å"In the last resort the content of any science doesn’t rest on simple objective facts, but always involves an interpretation and shaping of them according to categories and rules that are a priori of the science concerned.† (Stones p74) Any scientific conclusion, be it in the field of physics or sociology, has to be interpreted by its author, then represented by that same author and then reinterpreted by those that read it. In these interpretations any ‘truth’ or ‘law ’ is surrendered to human opinion, human meaning, human understanding. This criticism of positivist sociology is probably best illustrated by a discussion of a classic positivist sociological text, Emile Durkheim’s suicide study. In his study, Durkheim analysed the differential distribution of the occurrence of suicide by country and region. Durkheim professed to have found suicidogenic currents (Durkheim 1963) in society; the pressures to commit suicide, the laws of suicide. â€Å"These are called ‘social currents’†¦They come to each one of us from without and can carry us away in spite of ourselves.† (Delanty p28) Through a positivist, scientific methodology, Durkheim identified the pressures to commit suicide were greater in regions where the Protestant faith was dominant, and weaker where Catholicism dominated. Durkheim’s account posits an external force (suicidogenic currents) as the cause of suicide cause and effect. (Durkheim 1963) However why suicide occurs tends not to be the issue. To say that suicide is caused, not entirely obviously but in part, by the following of the Protestant faith is to assume that the term suicide is a simple one, a fixed one, with no room fo r differing meanings. This view is wrong. What is of importance is how a suicide comes to be defined as such by the coroner’s court. One must remember that a suicide is not an objective fact, but a interpretation, an interpretation that can be influenced by the coroner’s own personal feelings. If a ruling of suicide is likely to cause the deceased’s family pain and suffering, as is likely if they are Catholics, then the coroner may be inclined, where ever possible, to not record a suicide verdict, but an accidental death instead This alerts us to the problematic nature of Durkheim’s, and positivist sociology in general, reliance on statistics. For Durkheim takes those statistics as giving a ‘true’ picture of the incidence of suicide. But do they? Are they rather a representation of the interpretation of suicide as opposed to cold hard objective fact? Interactions/ interpretive work on suicide states that suicide statistics are a construction involving police, courts and coroners. Thus for a death to be counted as a suicide involves a complex social process concerning meaning and interpretation, two unquantifiable characteristics of humanity. Thus suicide is not just the effect of a societal cause, but an interpretation of events, thus not a positivist, scientific event. Therefore if sociologists wish a knowledge of social life, they cannot explain social actors’ action in terms of cause and effect. Rather, they must seek out what the social actors themselves say they are up to, wha t they mean. â€Å"Comte’s view shifted in later life, under the influence of Cloitilde de Vaux. He came to see that science alone could not be a binding force for social cohesion as he had earlier supposed. He argued that the intellect must become the servant of the heart, and advocated a new ‘religion of humanity.’† (Marshall p509) Comte, the originator of the positivist sociological methodology shifted his emphasis away from positivism in his later work, thus exposing the inherent problems and weaknesses at its methodological core. â€Å"Positivism has had relatively little influence in contemporary sociology for several reasons. Current views argue that positivism encourages a misleading emphasis on superficial facts without any attention to underlying mechanisms that cannot be observed.† (Johnson p231) For example, we cannot observe human motives or the meaning that people give to behaviour and other aspects of social life, but this does not me an that meaning and motive are nonexistent or irrelevant. The best way to illustrate the above points is to set them within the context of a positivist sociological study, in this case Parson’s work on personality. For society to function, it is logical according to Parsons to deduce that the individual members of society have to agree with society’s rule. â€Å"For Parsons, the social system is†¦made up of the interactions of individuals. Of special concern is†¦ that such interactions are not random but mediated by common standards of evaluation. Most important among these are moral standards which may be called norms.† (Hamilton p155) When people in society interact the interactions themselves, the emotions that seemingly control them, the goals that the individual actors (people) are hoping to obtain, they are all in fact controlled by the norms of society. â€Å"The concept of order is located predominantly at the level of the social system itself and the cultural system becomes a mechanism of the functioning of the social system.† (Hamilton p146) These norms are adopted and agreed by each member of the society for Parsons and this is his consensus theory. Imp ortantly Parsons’ theory suggests that the power of societal expectations, the power of norms, is more pervasive than merely being a moral standard that mediates interaction and personal relationships. They are in fact the organisational foci of personality, of people themselves. â€Å"Socialisation is the process by which we learn to become members of society, both by internalising the norms and values of society, and also learning to perform our social roles (as worker, friend, citizen and so forth.)† (Marshall p624) The family, for instance, is controlled by the same norms as society because it is that society, just it is a smaller component of it. The subsystems of society are analogous to body parts in the Parsonian model, they are all essential, each provide their own unique function and all interrelate, interpenetrate and are dependent upon one another. Analogous to the human body where each body part has a specific function to perform, and all of those parts work in unison to keep the structure going, so society is organised. Immersion within these subsystems, such as the family leads to internalisations of norms and objects, and this in turn creates personality. Because personality is internalised from society, â€Å"The foci of organisation of both types of system lies in†¦the value systems.† (Parsons p357) The values of society are the values of people, or personality. People are not just guided by the norms of society, but their very personalities are organised by the very same norms and principles and morals, according to Parsons. Thus peoples actions are quantifiable, reducible to a law since they are mediated by common standards. As gravity is a constant, so are the norms of a society and therefore of personality. The positivist law here is that personality, every action of a human is controlled by the same standards of evaluation as society. The person’s personality is derived directly from society, it is society. Thus a scientific study of society is possible because there is cause and effect, there is a reaction to stimuli. Socialisation is the stimulation that people react to. For Parsons, laws can be discerned from humanity because people will react in predictable ways, mediated by norms, to the stimulation of events and socialisation. Thus sociology can be scientific, empirical and positivist. A major problem with Parson’s work is that it reduces human personality to being produced and organised solely by societal expectations and norms. This societal determinism fails to acknowledge or explain where certain feelings, motives and actions originate. Goffman argues that â€Å"it is . . . against something that the self can emerge. . . Without something to belong to, we have no stable self, and yet total commitment and attachment to any social unit implies a kind of selflessness. Our sense of being a person can come from being drawn into a wider social unit; our sense of selfhood can arise through the little ways in which we resist the pull.† (Goffman 196 p305) A favourite example of this for Goffman was that of mental patients in asylums. The total institution of an asylum probably forces more strict adherence to societal expectation than most other social situations by using methods such as drug induced control and disciplinary measures such as EST. Yet in the se institutions, despite being forced to play the role of the mental patient, to conform to societal expectation), patients still resisted those expectations. The hoarding of banned materials being an example of this. The motivation to do this does not come from internalisation of norms, as the correct way to behave is to not horde banned items. It comes from a need to keep ones own identity, to satisfy needs and drives and wants. These needs drives and wants are absent from the Parsonian model and a full understanding or explanation of society and social actions needs to take them into account. â€Å"The maintenance of this surface of agreement, this veneer of consensus, is facilitated by each participant concealing his own wants behind statements which assert values to which everyone present feels obliged to give lip service.† (Goffman 1990 p20-21) The norms and laws that Parsons believes to control personality and society, are revealed by Goffman as only being a veneer. Furthermore Goffman states that other feelings and motives in fact influence social action, not just norms. If, as Goffman claims, the so called common standards of evaluation that Parsons identifies are in fact a veneer that hides other motives and feelings, then the actions of humanity are not as easily quantifiable, reducible to a scientific, positivist law, as Parsons first shows. Freud’s metapsychology deals with the general structure of mental life. For Freud there were three psychic structures. The first, the id, contains, â€Å"those basic drives we have by virtue of being human, of which sexuality is the most important.† (Craib 1989 p3) The Id is often equated to by Freud as being like an infant, demanding immediate satisfaction irrespective of societal expectations. The Id makes up the greatest part of the unconscious and it is in this unconscious realm of basic biologically influenced drives that the motivational forces that Parson’s can not identity come from. The Id influences personality. It is important to remember that, as opposed to biological instincts driving us to act like a shark would, a mindless automaton, â€Å"the unconscious is composed not of biological instincts but of the mental representations we attach to these instincts.† (Craib 1989 p4) Thus each individual creates their own mental representation for the ir drives thus meaning that every persons internal world has a different geography. This clearly poses problems for the positivist approach to personality and society and social action, as represented by Parsons here, for if reaction to stimulation is not predictable because each person acts differently, then universal scientific laws can not be established. The second structure of personality according to Freud, the ego or the ‘I’ is the central organiser of mental life. The third, the superego is thought of as the conscience. â€Å"The superego is the internalisation of external control which demands the renuncification of instinctual satisfaction in order that society might be formed and maintained.† (Craib 1989 p21) The superego is the part of personality that Parson’s identifies the part that internalises norms. The basic drives of the id demand immediate satisfaction, immediate gratification of those drives, these demands are contrary to the superego norms and morality, and the conflict has to be resolved by the ego. Our consciousness, predominantly consisting of the ego and superego, protects us from our own id impulses that, if they were followed, would leave it impossible for us to exist within society. Freud stated that â€Å"Civilisation depends upon repression†¦If we tried to gratify all our d esires, sexual or otherwise, as and when they arose, society, civilisation and culture would vanish over night.† (Craib 1984 p195) For Freud the ‘I’, is the resolution of the conflict between the id biologically directed drives, and the superego’s societal restraints. Therefore personality is the site of the, hopefully, resolved conflict between the normative mind evaluated by common standards as Parsons identifies, and the basic id drives. These Id drives, as I shall show, influence personality thus influence social action and society. This being the case then Parsons’ explanation for personality is insufficient and so is the positivist claim for the scientific study of society. The positivist tenants of careful observation and measurement; quantification; formalisation of concepts precision in definition; operationalisation of theoretical questions; mathematisation; logic and systemisation of theory; symmetry of explanation prediction and objecti vity cannot be applied to individualistic Id drives and impulses. â€Å"The desire to kill anyone who frustrates us thus becomes unconscious, but none the less remains.† (Craib 1989 p24) Evidence for these desires for Freud appears in slips, where the unconscious desire can ‘slip’ into conscious conversation. â€Å"Freud quotes the husband who supposedly said, ‘If one of us two die, I shall move to Paris.† (Craib 1989 p24) One can not scientifically measure how these unconscious desires influence and effect social action, especially since it can be so hard to identify them as existing in the first place. â€Å"A feature of human life is that an instinct such as the sexual instinct is not directed at any one object, but has to be socially channelled, in our society usually towards members of the opposite sex.† (Craib 1989 p4) â€Å"Human beings are restrained by social organisation from a free and good expression of their drives. Through its oppression, society forces people into neuroses and psychoses.† (Craib 1989 p19) For Freud the very problems that he and other psychoanalysts dealt with were in fact often as the result of the repression of id drives by the superego and societal repression. As such the very existence of neuroses and psychoses can be seen as evidence to the fact that this conflict does indeed exist, that the resolution of this conflict does indeed produce the ‘I’ with all its faults and problems. To fully understand society, sociology needs to be aware of societal pressures, the Parson’s personality through positivism, but also nee ds to recognise the other meanings and emotions that cannot be quantified, cannot be analysed scientifically. Sociology needs to use interpretivism and positivism together. In terms of this example, Parsons positivist models needs to be considered at great length and detail as he does indeed identify a huge force in shaping society, that of norms and how they do penetrate into the psyche and personality. However, a study that only concentrates on the positivist methodology misses the crucial aspects of personality that Goffman and Freud identify, and that is not in the interest of any sociologist. â€Å"Positivism may be dead in that there is no longer an identifiable community of philosophers who give its simpler characteristics unqualified support, but it lives on philosophically, developed until it transmutes into conventionalism or realism. And even if in its simpler philosophical forms it is dead, the spirit of those earlier formulations continues to haunt sociology.† (Halfpenny p120) In conclusion positivism’s attempt at scientific sociological methodology, though fallacious is admirable and certainly many of the aspects of positivism should be considered desirable. As quoted elsewhere, â€Å"positivism is a way of thinking based on the assumption that it is possible to observe social life and establish reliable, valid knowledge about how it works.† (Johnson p231) The desire for reliable, valid knowledge is of course a relevant and important sociological aim and some of the tools that positivism uses to try to reach such knowledge are useful and wort hwhile. Careful observation, measurement; quantification; formalisation of concepts precision in definition; operationalisation of theoretical questions; logic and systemisation of theory; symmetry of explanation and prediction and objectivity, if all of these tenants of positivism can at least be attempted in a sociological study then that sociological study will indeed be the better for it. However, sociological study needs to recognise, as Comte himself did, that these aims, in their fullest, are unobtainable and that those aims are not ends in themselves, rather a very rough guide to sociological methodology. As I have hopefully shown above, sociological analysis needs positivism, needs scientific methodology, but a carefully tempered and monitored positivism. The aim of sociology is understanding and that understanding should not be limited by methodology, especially a methodology that is inherently flawed. Positivism shows us how to analyse data, data that is essential to soc iological understand, but that data must not be treated uncritically thus a synthesis of positivism and interpretivism is recommended. To study the social world using a strict scientific methodology is impossible, that does not, of course, mean that scientific methodology is not a useful and critical tool in sociological study. Bibliography Baert, P, 1998. Social theory in the twentieth century. Polity press Craib, I, 1984. Modern social theory. Wheatsheaf books Ltd Craib, I, 1989. Psychoanalysis and social theory the limits of sociology Wheatsheaf Craib, I, 1997. Classical social theory pub by Oxford university press Delanty, G, 2003. Philosophies of social science. Open university. Durkheim, E, 1963. Suicide, a study in sociology. Routledge Goffman, E, 1961 Asylums. Doubleday Anchor Goffman, E, 1990. The presentation of the self in everyday life. Penguin Halfpenny, P, 1986. Positivism and sociology. Routledge Johnson, G 2000 The dictionary of sociology Blackwell Hamilton, P, 1992. Talcott Parsons critical assessments. Routledge Marshall, G 1998. Oxford dictionary of sociology. Oxford university press Parsons, T, The structure of social action Free Press 1949 Poloma, M, 1979. Contemporary sociological theory. MacMillan Stones, R, 1998. Key sociological thinkers. Palgrave Winch, P, 1958. The Idea Of a Social Science. Routledge

Thursday, September 19, 2019

Tort, Negligence and Nuisance Claims :: Tort Law

A number of aspects of liability rise from this case study and each one will be discussed. With regards to the headaches suffered by Karl, it is necessary to look at private nuisance. Negligence is disregarded as it is assumed from the details in the case study that the headaches suffered are not so serious as to cause personal injury, it is just described as ‘mere discomfort’. Such a claim under the law of nuisance requires three factors to be fulfilled. The first being a continuous interference. This is shown in De Keyser’s Royal Hotel v Spicer Bros Ltd (1914) 30 TLR 257. From the case study one can assume that it is a continuing interfering act and not a one off. Secondly, the interference must be unlawful or unreasonable. This is up to the claimant to prove. The rule for this is sic utere tuo ut alienum non laedas (So use your own property as not to injure your neighbour's). The locality in this instance reflects the unreasonableness of Jane’s actions. It occurred in a residential area and therefore such Gases were not to be expected. The duration of the act will also be taken into account. Because Jane is a young inventor it is assumed her work is an ongoing process and not a one off as explained above. The seriousness is also considered. In Walter v Selfe (1851), Knight-Bruce V C said â€Å"an inconvenience materially interfering with the ordinary comfort physically of human existence, not merely according to elegant or dainty modes and habits of living, but according too the plain sober and simple notions among the English people.† This shows Jane’s actions would be deemed unreasonable, heightened by the fact that the incident occurred in a housing area, not an industrial estate. The sensitivity of the defendant, the utility of his conduct and a malicious aspect may be also discussed but this is not relevant in this case. Thus the second aspect of unlawful or unreasonable interference is established.

Wednesday, September 18, 2019

Idealism, Realism, and Marxism in Todays World of Politics Essays

Idealism, Realism, and Marxism in Today's World of Politics Realism is a method to study and practice international politics. It is the oldest form of international relations in political history. It takes an approach where it emphasizes all world politics deals with the pursuit of power, and states fight for the control of this power. It makes the assumption that all states are only motivated by national interests, which mostly is applied and presented as moral concerns. Realists believe that power can be achieved through strength. They believe that states should go after interests which are only possible to achieve. They also imply that states should not go after the interests of its opponent as that will merely cause a war. Thomas Hobbes, who lived between, 1588 and 1679, was known as ?Forefather of Realism?, in his famous book, Leviathan, he says 'if any two men desire the same thing, which nevertheless both cannot enjoy, they become enemies and?endeavor to destroy or subdue one other'. This is the basic idea around which Realism is based, that is, conflict is inevitable. Hans Morgenthau was also one of the great thinkers of realism, he lived between 1904 and 1980, he was convinced that politics is essentially a struggle for power, and in his most famous book, Politics Among Nations, he explains this conviction by saying, "... the struggle for power is universal in time and space and is an undeniable fact of experience ... Even though anthropologists have shown that certain primitive people seem to be free from desire for power, nobody has yet shown how their state of mind and the conditions under which they live can be recreated on a worldwide scale so as to eliminate the struggle for power from the internatio... ...s political theories and analysis of international relations, it is still a phenomenon which is very unpredictable and situational. But in spite of this, these theories are still relevant and important because they help to establish a proper framework for analyzing international relations. I also feel that a combination of these theories would be more successful in understanding and implementing in international relations rather than focusing and practicing one of the theories. Bibliography: International Politics on a World Stage ? John T. Rourke  HYPERLINK http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/p/polreal.html http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/p/polreal.html  HYPERLINK http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/pol116/realism.html http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/pol116/realism.html 4) http://www.unet.univie.ac.at/~a8700288/research/ODYSSEY.html

Lasting Love Requires Chemistry and Commitment Essay -- Relationships

Little girls dream about love. Young girls long to be loved. Maturing young women desire love. Actually, from the womb to the grave the need to be loved is a craving that must be satiated. Love can be an ever eluding force to be reckoned with. In contrast, love can capture a heart in a moment and last a lifetime. Love can be found in the imaginary world of fairy tales. However, love takes on a whole new dimension when one views it through the lens of reality. True love can last a lifetime. Little girls begin to watch fairy tale stories pertaining to love long before they can ever really understand such a thing. Yet, they are born with the need to be loved. There are many Disney movies that depict the fairy tale love that are the dreams dancing around in the head of almost every little girl. Jacob and Wilelm Grimm wrote what is believed by some to be the original version of the Cinderella story. The story differs from modern-day versions of the tale. Cinderella’s mother was dying. The mother said, â€Å"Dear child, I must leave you now, but I will look down on you from heaven. Plant a tree on my grave, and when you want something just shake the tree, and you shall get what you want. I will help you in time of need. Just remain pious and good† (Gromm 405). Cinderella remained pure in heart and good despite all that her evil stepmother and stepsisters caused her to endure. Furthermore, true to her promise Cinderella’s mother became her savin g grace. She always provided what her daughter needed. It was through that provision that against all odds Cinderella found true love. In the fairy tale, the difference in social status did not thwart love. It would have been highly unlikely that the prince would have chosen Cinder... ...r would lead to a security that would allow total abandonment of one’s self to another. While the little girl who needs love is growing into the woman who will experience love, the little boy is playing war games and growing into the man who will protect and provide for the woman. Men and women define love differently, experience love differently, and express love differently. However, both in their own way deep down in their inner most being long for and would do almost anything to obtain a love that will last a lifetime. Works Cited: Carey, Benedict. "The Brain in Love." Lztterell, Catherine G. Remix. Bedford/St. Martin's, 2010. 400-404. Gromm, Jacob and Wilelm. "Cinderella." Latterell, Catherine G. Remix. Bedford/St. Martin's, 2010. 405-413. Hooks, Bell. "Baba abd Daddy Gus ." Latterell, Catherine G. Remix. Bedford/St. Martin's, 2010. 372-378.

Tuesday, September 17, 2019

The Italian Renaissance Art

The Italian Renaissance was one of the most prolific periods in the history of art, with large numbers of exceptional artists to be found in painting, sculpture, and architecture. These leaders included Masaccio in painting, Brunelleschi in architecture, and Donatello in sculpture. Renaissance Art is divided into two main periods. The first period is known as Early Renaissance which took place in the fifteenth century during the Golden Age of Florence. This time included largess buildings, sculptures, and paintings, all of which questioned the rules of art. The next period is known as the High Renaissance, which was created mostly in the sixteenth century as it essentially built up upon and mastered the artwork created in the previous era. Art of this time period was marked by greater realism and the natural depiction of the human form. Humanism played a major part in Renaissance art as individualism that humanism cultivated led to a greater attention to the power of the individual. The Baptistry in Florence is known as the birthplace of the Italian Renaissance. During this rebirth of culture, a banking system was invented in Florence, largely thanks to the wealthy Medici family. The Baptistry is an octagonal dome with a Florentine Romanesque style. The Baptistery is renowned for its three sets of artistically important bronze doors with relief sculptures. Michelangelo called the doors on the eastern side, â€Å"The Gates of Paradise. † The Golden Age of Florence is known as The Early Renaissance with considerable artistic achievements. Sculpture was very important during this time, and Donatello’s statues David and Gattamelata. Donatello's bronze statue of David is notable as it is the first unsupported standing work in bronze cast during the Renaissance period. It depicts the young David with an enigmatic smile, posed with his foot on Goliath's severed head just after killing the giant. Most scholars assume the statue was commissioned by the Medici Family around 1440. Gattemelata by Donatello depicts the realism, humanism, and individualism of the Renaissance. Bronze like Donatello’s David, this statue is the first Renaissance equestrian statue and it served as a model for later sculptures honoring military heroes. Renaissance painting began with The Holy Trinity by Masaccio. This painting is also the first to invent perspective, in which a two-dimensional image has the appearance of being three-dimensional with the help of a barrel-vaulted chamber. This piece shows the intimacy of religion during this time as God is descending Jesus from the cross. Madonna and Child, likely the most popular painting in Italy during its time, further shows how religion is a central theme in the Renaissance. The most well known Renaissance painting today, however, is the Birth of Venus by Botticelli. It depicts the goddess Venus, having emerged from the sea as a full grown woman, arriving at the sea-shore. Botticelli rarely gave weight and volume to his figures and rarely used a deep perspective space. In this painting, Venus' body is anatomically questionable, with elongated neck and torso. Venus is an Italian Renaissance ideal as she is blonde, pale-skinned, and voluptuous. High Renaissance Artwork is dominated by Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci. Leonardo is famous for mostly paintings, while Michelangelo worked in a wider range of mediums which included sculptures and frescos. Leonardo created Madonna on the Rocks, which shows his interest in geology. One of his better-known paintings is The Last Supper. It represents the scene of The Last Supper from the final days of Jesus as narrated in the Gospel of John 13:21, when Jesus announces that one of his Twelve Apostles would betray him. The Mona Lisa, another one of da Vinci’s masterpieces, encompasses the Italian Renaissance. The painting is a wedding portrait that depicts a seated woman whose facial expression is frequently described as enigmatic. The ambiguity of the woman’s expression, and the subtle modeling of forms and atmospheric illusion were new qualities that make the work fascinating. The image is so widely recognized, caricatured, and sought out by its visitors that it is considered the most famous painting in the world. Donato Bramante also created fine work during the High Renaissance, especially in architecture. In the year 1502 in Rome, Bramante build a church called Tempietto. Originally patronized by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain, the Tempietto marks the traditional location of St. Peter's crucifixion where he was crucified upside down. Inside, Michelangelo supplied some of the figure drawings, which further shows his significant role in the Renaissance. Michelangelo, unlike the painter da Vinci, created both paintings and statues. Pardon the pun; he truly was a Renaissance Man as he mastered a bevy of skills. He only piece Michelangelo ever signed was his Pieta. The Pieta, done in 1499, is a masterpiece of Renaissance sculpture that is housed in St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican City. It is the first of a number of works of the same theme by the artist. This famous marble sculpture depicts the body of Jesus on the lap of his mother Mary after the Crucifixion. It is an important work as it balances the Renaissance ideals of classical beauty with naturalism. The statue is one of the most highly finished works by Michelangelo, and may be one of his favorites as it is the only one he signed. Another one of Michelangelo’s well-known statues is David. Michelangelo breaks away from the traditional way of representing David. He does not present us with the winner, like with the giant's head at his feet and the powerful sword in his hand. Rather, he portrays the youth as tense as he gathers power immediately preceding the battle. Unlike Donatello’s depiction of the biblical hero David, some say Michelangelo’s version does not say much about the legend. Rather, Michelangelo seems to be proving to the population that he can create and master a Greek Style statue. He seems to perfect the traditional contrapposto knee flexion, as many Greek heroes are represented. We can see further Greek elements, as David is a standing male who is nude. Michelangelo continues the High Renaissance with his Statue of Moses. Moses is depicted with horns, which may strike up a red flag to some viewers. However, before the bible was translated, horns were the symbol for halos. This is a significant theme of the wisdom of the Enlightenment. This marble sculpture was commissioned in 1505 by Pope Julius II for his tomb as Moses is holding the Ten Commandments under his arm. Oil paints were perfected in the Renaissance and allowed much advancement in many mediums, especially in frescos. Michelangelo’s first famous painting was likely his Lybian Sibyl from 1510 located on the Sistine Chapel. In this work, colors start to become much brighter than previously used, which gave the chapel a heavenly feel. His paintings are so detailed and bold that they actually look as if they were statues. The serpentine figure presents itself with a snake-like twist. Michelangelo showed his painting talents in a fresco in the Sistine Chapel known as the Creation of Adam. Michelangelo tries to tell a story on the entire ceiling of the church and does so with marvelous creations. In fact, this ceiling took a total of four years to created, in which Michelangelo worked on it every day. However, it ought to be noted that looking up at a ceiling for an extensive period of time can be very bothersome, so viewers sometimes lay on their backs to attempt to understand and appreciate the beauty of the frescos. This work specifically was the most condemned work of art after the Council of Trent because of all of the nude figures Michelangelo depicted. The Last Judgment by Michelangelo is the altarpiece at The Sistine Chapel. Michelangelo began working on it three decades after having finished the ceiling of the chapel. The work is massive and spans the entire wall behind the altar and it is a depiction of the second coming of Christ and the apocalypse. The souls of humans rise and descend to their fates, as judged by Christ surrounded by his saints. Shortly after the creation of this painting, the Jesuits began to spread. Michelangelo was accused of immorality and intolerable obscenity, having depicted naked figures, with genitals in evidence, inside the most important church of Christianity. The Fig-Leaf Campaign began to protest and give sensors to such art. Michelangelo does a self-portrait depicting himself as St. Bartholomew after he had been skinned alive. This is reflective of the feelings of contempt Michelangelo had for being commissioned to paint The Last Judgment. Michelangelo took his talents to architecture in the final stages of his career. He created the Dome of St.  Peter’s Basilica. This is the highest dome in the world, and is also the third widest. This was created with the intention of looking very classical. One of Michelangelo’s motifs is his double columns along the outside of the dome for decoration. Uniquely, Michelangelo's dome is not a hemisphere, but a parabola: it has a vertical thrust, which is made more emphatic by the bold ribbing that springs from the paired Corinthian columns, which appear to be part of the drum, but which stand away from it like buttresses, to absorb the outward thrust of the dome's weight. It would not do the Italian Renaissance justice to leave out Rafael’s masterpiece The School of Athens, created in 1510. This painting represents the philosophical inquiry of classical times. Ancient Greek architecture and clothing can be seen in the painting It was painted as a part of Raphael's commission to decorate with frescoes the rooms in the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican, so today it is a nice fresco on the wall of the Pope’s office. The picture has long been seen as Raphael's masterpiece and the perfect embodiment of the classical spirit of the High Renaissance.

Monday, September 16, 2019

My Baptism Essay

The Sacrament of Baptism is often called â€Å"The door of the Church,† because it is the first of the seven sacraments not only in time (since most Catholics receive it as infants) but in priority, since the reception of the other sacraments depends on it. It is the first of the three Sacraments of Initiation, the other two being the Sacrament of Confirmation and the Sacrament of Holy Communion. Once baptized, a person becomes a member of the Church. Traditionally, the rite (or ceremony) of baptism was held outside the doors of the main part of the church, to signify this fact. The Necessity of Baptism: Christ Himself ordered His disciples to preach the Gospel to all nations and to baptize those who accept the message of the Gospel. In His encounter with Nicodemus (John 3:1-21), Christ made it clear that baptism was necessary for salvation: â€Å"Amen, amen I say to thee, unless a man be born again of water and the Holy Ghost, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God. † For Catholics, the sacrament is not a mere formality; it is the very mark of a Christian, because it brings us into new life in Christ. Baptism of Desire: That doesn’t mean that only those who have been formally baptized can be saved. From very early on, the Church recognized that there are two other types of baptism besides the baptism of water. The baptism of desire applies both to those who, while wishing to be baptized, die before receiving the sacrament and â€Å"Those who, through no fault of their own, do not know the Gospel of Christ or His Church, but who nevertheless seek God with a sincere heart, and, moved by grace, try in their actions to do His will as they know it through the dictates of conscience† (Constitution on the Church, Second Vatican Council). Baptism of Blood: The baptism of blood is similar to the baptism of desire. It refers to the martyrdom of those believers who were killed for the faith before they had a chance to be baptized. This was a common occurrence in the early centuries of the Church, but also in later times in missionary lands. The baptism of blood has the same effects as the baptism of water. The Form of the Sacrament of Baptism: While the Church has an extended rite of Baptism which is normally celebrated, which includes roles for both parents and godparents, the essentials of that rite are two: the pouring of water over the head of the person to be baptized (or the immersion of the person in water); and the words â€Å"I baptize you in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. † The Minister of the Sacrament of Baptism: Since the form of baptism requires just the water and the words, the sacrament, like the Sacrament of Marriage, does not require a priest; any baptized person can baptize another. In fact, when the life of a person is in danger, even a non-baptized person—including someone who does not himself believe in Christ—can baptize, provided that the person performing the baptism follows the form of baptism and intends, by the baptism, to do what the Church does—in other words, to bring the person being baptized into the fullness of the Church. Infant Baptism: In the Catholic Church today, baptism is most commonly administered to infants. While some other Christians strenuously object to infant baptism, believing that baptism requires assent on the part of the person being baptized, the Eastern Orthodox, Anglicans, Lutherans, and other mainline Protestants also practice infant baptism, and there is evidence that it was practiced from the earliest days of the Church. Since baptism removes both the guilt and the punishment due to Original Sin, delaying baptism until a child can understand the sacrament may put the child’s salvation in danger, should he die un-baptized. Adult Baptism: Adult converts to Catholicism also receive the sacrament, unless they have already received a Christian baptism. (If there is any doubt about whether an adult has already been baptized, the priest will perform a conditional baptism. ) A person can only be baptized once as a Christian—if, say, he was baptized as a Lutheran, he cannot be rebaptized when he converts to Catholicism. While an adult can be baptized after proper instruction in the Faith, adult baptism normally occurs today as part of the Rite of Christian Initiation for Adults (RCIA) and is immediately followed by Confirmation and Communion. The Effects of the Sacrament of Baptism: Baptism has six primary effects, which are all supernatural graces: 1. The removal of the guilt of both Original Sin (the sin imparted to all mankind by the Fall of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden) and personal sin (the sins that we have committed ourselves). 2. The remission of all punishment that we owe because of sin, both temporal (in this world and in Purgatory) and eternal (the punishment that we would suffer in hell). 3. The infusion of grace in the form of sanctifying grace (the life of God within us); the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit; and the three theological virtues. 4. Becoming a part of Christ. 5. Becoming a part of the Church, which is the Mystical Body of Christ on earth. 6. Enabling participation in the sacraments, the priesthood of all believers, and the growth in grace. Question: What is Baptism? Christian denominations differ widely on their teachings about baptism. Some believe baptism accomplishes the washing away of sin. Others consider baptism a form of exorcism from evil spirits. Still others teach that baptism is an important step of obedience in the believer’s life, yet only an acknowledgment of the salvation experience already accomplished – baptism itself has no power to cleanse or save from sin. The following takes a look at the latter perspective called â€Å"Believer’s Baptism:† Answer: A general definition for the word baptism is â€Å"a rite of washing with water as a sign of religious purification and consecration. † This rite was practiced frequently in the Old Testament. It signified purity or cleansing from sin and devotion to God. Since baptism was first instituted in the Old Testament many have practiced it as a tradition yet have not fully understood its significance and meaning. In the New Testament, the significance of baptism is seen more clearly. John the Baptist was sent by God to spread the news of the coming Messiah—Jesus Christ. John was directed by God (John 1:33) to baptize those who accepted his message. John’s baptizing is called â€Å"a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins. † Mark 1:4 (NIV). Those baptized by John acknowledged their sins and professed their faith that through the coming Messiah they would be forgiven. Baptism then is significant in that it represents the forgiveness and cleansing from sin that comes through faith in the Lord Jesus Christ. The Purpose of Baptism: Water Baptism identifies the believer with the Godhead – Father, Son & Holy Spirit. â€Å"Therefore go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit. † Matthew 28:19 (NIV) †¢Water Baptism identifies the believer with Christ in His death, burial and resurrection. â€Å"When you came to Christ, you were â€Å"circumcised,â €  but not by a physical procedure. It was a spiritual procedure–the cutting away of your sinful nature. For you were buried with Christ when you were baptized. And with him you were raised to a new life because you trusted the mighty power of God, who raised Christ from the dead. † Colossians 2:11-12 (NLT) â€Å"We were therefore buried with Him through baptism into death in order that, just as Christ was raised from the dead through the glory of the Father, we too may live a new life. † Romans 6:4 (NIV) †¢Water Baptism is an act of obedience for the believer. It should be preceded by repentance, which simply means â€Å"change. † It is turning from our sin and selfishness to serve the Lord. It means placing our pride, our past and all of our possessions before the Lord. It is giving the control of our lives over to Him. â€Å"Peter replied, ‘Each of you must turn from your sins and turn to God, and be baptized in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins. Then you will receive the gift of the Holy Spirit. ‘ Those who believed what Peter said were baptized and added to the church–about three thousand in all. † Acts 2:38, 41 (NLT) †¢Water Baptism is a public testimony – the outward confession of an inward experience. In baptism, we stand before witnesses confessing our identification with the Lord. †¢Water Baptism is a picture representing profound spiritual truth: Death – â€Å"I have been crucified with Christ and I no longer live, but Christ lives in me. The life I live in the body, I live by faith in the Son of God, who loved me and gave himself for me. † Galatians 2:20 (NIV) Resurrection – â€Å"We were therefore buried with Him through baptism into death in order that, just as Christ was raised from the dead through the glory of the father, we too may live a new life. If we have been united with Him like this in His death, we will certainly also be united with Him in His resurrection. † Romans 6:4-5 (NIV) â€Å"He died once to defeat sin, and now he lives for the glory of God. So you should consider yourselves dead to sin and able to live for the glory of God through Christ Jesus. Do not let sin control the way you live; do not give in to its lustful desires. Do not let any part of your body become a tool of wickedness, to be used for sinning. Instead, give yourselves completely to God since you have been given new life. And use your whole body as a tool to do what is right for the glory of God. † Romans 6:10-13 (NLT) Cleansing – â€Å"And this water symbolizes baptism that now saves you also – not the removal of dirt from the body but the pledge of a good conscience toward God. It saves you by the resurrection of Jesus Christ. † I Peter 3:21 (NIV) â€Å"But you were washed, you were sanctified, you were justified in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ and by the Spirit of our God. † I Corinthians 6:11 (NIV) Questions On Baptism Friday, October 10, 2003 Home Greetings! Initiation of a non-Christian into the Roman Catholic Church is celebrated in a Rite called â€Å"baptism†. In this rite, a person is either immersed in water, or sprinkled with water by another Christian who says, â€Å"I baptize you in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. What makes a baptism valid? Baptism is valid so long as water was used with the Trinitarian formula (See Mt 28:19 for the Trinitarian formula, and John 3:5 for the necessity of water). In an emergency, even tears or saliva could be used where running water is not present. Catholics believe that all people who have received water baptism in the Trinitarian formula are mysteriousl y united to the Church, and indwelt with the grace of Jesus Christ. What is grace? Grace is God’s favor, and more than this, it is the very life of God within a person through the Holy Spirit. With grace, three dispositions, or virtues are infused in the soul: faith, hope and love. God cannot co-exist with sin, and when we turn away from God, we can sin so badly as to cut off this flow of divine life within us. Catholics call this â€Å"mortal sin†, referring to the notion of deadly sin we find in 1 John 5:17. Yet, even when we sin mortally, the Council of Trent states that faith lingers in the soul to draw us back to Christ. Only blasphemy of the Holy Spirit – an ongoing and deliberate rejection of the free gift of grace – can damn us. We can trust teh one who started the work of salvation in us through baptism to bring it to completion. Is Baptism necessary for salvation? The Second Vatican Council affirms that the grace of baptism is necessary for salvation. Yet, the Council speaks of salvation outside, but not apart from the Church. Catholics believe that the grace of baptism is given through the rite itself, but is also provided to those who, through no fault of their own, have either never heard the Gospel, or heard the Gospel in a distorted manner so that they were unable to accept it. Many theologians (myself included) argue that anyone who has not actively rejected the Gospel as properly understood may be under the saving grace of baptismal grace. The Church has always maintained that the Old Testament prophets are counted among the saints in heaven. The Council of Trent affirmed that even prior to baptism, a grace called prevenient grace draws a person to baptism. Furthermore, the Church always taught that there is such a thing as baptism by desire. Traditionally, baptism of desire was used to refer to martyrs who were murdered while preparing for the rite of baptism. These various doctrines have lead theologians to the conclusion that there is saving grace available without strictly receiving water baptism. Yet, for a believer in Jesus Christ, it would make no sense to reject water baptism, since Christ himself was baptized and taught his disciples to baptize. In the early church, baptism was a public witness to becoming a Christian, and often a person was placing their life on the line by receiving the sacrament. To reject water baptism and claim to believe in Jesus is a contradiction, and in this sense, baptism is necessary for all believers. However, knowing that prevenient grace draws the sinner to the sacrament, many theologians today argue that there are two types of saving faith, and one depends on the other. Primordial faith is a trust in a vague and fuzzy awareness of divine holy mystery and openess to transcendant experience that goes beyond language. This faith is what begins the salvation process in us, and it is this grace that is spoken of when we say the grace of baptism is necessary for salvation. Many theologians since Karl Rahner argue that we are all born with the gift of such grace, even as we are all effected by original sin. If we respond to this grace, we seek language to describe the experience, and primordial faith is then translated into fiducial faith, which is the belief in a particular creed, doctrine, and set of religious practices. For the Catholic Christian, fiducial faith expresses itself and becomes actualized in cooperation with Christ through the sacraments. However, the non-Catholic may very well be saved by fiducial faith expressing primordial faith in a different cultural context. Who performs a baptism? Typically, a baptism is performed by a priests, but in an emergency, any Christian who has already received baptism can perform the rite. Catholics recognize the baptisms of other Christian demonimations as valid, so long as water was used, and the Trinitarian formula was followed. Catholics consider the rite of baptism to be a sacrament. Sacraments are outward signs of internal grace instituted by Christ and preserved in the Apostolic tradition. Catholics believe that Christ, himself, acts in each sacrament, so that even if a sacramental rite is performed by the worst sinner, the sacrament is valid. How often can baptism be received? Because it is the first step of initiation, baptism is only received one time in life, and Catholics do not believe anyone who has received a valid baptism needs to repeat it, even if the rite was performed before a person was fully mature, or the rite was by an imperfect person, or in a manner that was hasty or sloppy. Indeed, Catholics see it as a lack of faith to repeat baptism. At the same time, Catholics do bless themselves with holy water as they enter a church as a constant reminder of baptism. What are the effects of baptism? Perhaps the effects of baptism are best understood by looking at the symbolic meaning of the rite. Water is a natural symbol of birth, life, and cleanliness. It symbolizes birth as a mother’s water is broken. It symbolizes life as we need it for nourishment. It symbolizes cleanliness as we bathe daily with water. Water also symbolizes death, as we can drown in water. In Judaism, ritual baths and purifications symbolized that we were making ourselves presentable to God, the most high and most holy and pure being of all. According to the New Testament, the baptism of John, who preceded Jesus was a baptism of repentance. The word for repentance in Greek means conversion, and is rooted in the notion of turning a stiff neck. John seemed to use water baptism as a symbolic action to convey the notion of the hope to one day be immersed in the Spirit to be cleansed from sin to live a new life. John’s preaching was eschatological and forward looking, and painted a picture of cosmic conflict between good and evil. John’s baptism looked for the day when the Spirit would be poured forth like a river on the people to produce a change of heart. Jesus received the baptism of John, and many Bible scholars point to this incidence as evidence of a historical person named Jesus. According to the criteria of embarrassment, the early church would have no reason to invent this encounter, since the action implies John is greater than Jesus and that Jesus needed to repent. Many believers in Christianity are raised to believe that Jesus was baptized by John in order to provide us an example. However, this oversimplifies the issue, and implies that Jesus was play acting. Even a perfect person can and would have turning points in life if that person is fully human. A conversion experience does not always involve turning from sin to virtue. Rather, like a moth becoming a butterfly, a conversion experience can be growth from one stage of human development to another. The New Testament is clear that Jesus grew as a human person (See Luke 2:40). By receiving the baptism of John, Jesus reveals that he has fully entered the human condition. Like us, in his humanity, he longed to be immersed in the Holy Spirit and to grow and change. John preached that there would be one who come after him who would baptize with fire and Spirit. Having received the baptism of John, the growth or conversion that Jesus displayed was to begin to live as though the fullness of God’s reign was breaking into our world here and now, already present, but not fully present yet! There is some evidence in the New Testament that Jesus continued the ministry of baptism after John, and may have even rivaled John for a period (See John 4:1). However, where John was an ascetic preaching hell-fire and brimstone, Jesus preached that the reign of God was breaking in through mercy upon the marignalized. It is not that Jesus made no mention of hell. However, when he does mention hell, it is always in the context of the rigidly unforgiving, or those who commit heinous sins that hurt other people. For Jesus, it appears that baptism was transformed from a symbolic act that looked forward to a day of immersion in the Spirit, to a symbolic rite that made the Spirit present. In Jesus and his disciples, baptism truly became a rite of initiation for those who choose in the here and now to live in the reign of god breaking into our reality. By accepting the baptism of Jesus, one was chosing to live here and now as though God is your only king, and to trive for perfection. After the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus, baptism took on new meaning. Under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, Saint Paul called baptism an immersion in the death and resurrection of the Lord (See Romans 6:4 and Colossians 2:12). The author of 1 Peter refers to baptism as a cleansing. With Saint Augustine int he fourth century, the emphasis on the notion of bap tism as cleansing became critical in his debates with a monk named Pelegius. Pelegius believed that Christ saved us by offerring an example of perfection that we chose to follow by our own inherent goodness. Those who rejected Christ and refuse to imitate him are simply evil. Pelegius taught a crass works righteousness. Augustine, profoundly aware of his own sinfulness, countered that he could not even want to follow Christ if God had not given him the gift to desire Christ. Augustine, relying on Saint Paul, believed that we are saved by grace, and that grace enables us to imitate Christ. Augustine developed the concept of original sin to explain what he felt Paul was saying when Paul says all people are sinners due to Adam’s sin (see Romans 5:12). Augustine argued that grace is a completely free gift given to us while we are sinners, and through the gift, we are made righteous, with baptism symbolizing cleanliness and new birth. As a demonstration that he was interpreting the Scriptures correctly, Augustine wrote to Pelegius appealing to common tradition asking if what he was saying were not true, why does the Church baptize infants? So, the effect of baptism is that we die to our sinful selves to rise with him. Grace, the very life of Christ, is infused in the soul by the one who lives today! This new life is experienced as rebirth in water and Spirit. We are immersed int eh Holy Spirit so that live as sons of daughters of the great King of the universe, whose reign of peace and justice is breaking into the world through Christ acting in us. Why do Catholics baptize infants? Acts 10 speaks of the entire family of Cornelius, and the whole household, including his servants, receiving Peter and the Apostles to eventually become baptized. Catholics believe that the episode indicates the possibility that children were baptized within the New Testament period, since it is likely that Cornelius had children. Yet, there is no direct and unquestionable proof that infants were baptized in the New Testament. Many Protestant Christians argue that the symbolism of conversion and change is lost by performing baptism on infants, and that such batisms should be considered invalid. Catholics believe that in the early church, adult baptism was the norm as the Church reached out to new members. However, we saw above that Saint Augustine argued against the works righteousness of Pelegius by appealing to the already wide-spread and ancient tradition of infant baptism. Infant baptism may or may not not perfectly allow the recipient to experience grace as conversion. Yet, Catholics accept in faith that conversion is occurring even in the infant. For many Catholics, infant baptism is a response of gratitude to God for a child, and a celebration of birth. Parents naturally want to share their faith and culture with their children. As a rite of intitiation, baptism knits a person into that web of relationships that forms the Church – the Body of Christ. What Christian parent would not seek to have their child knit into this web of relationships? On a deeper theological level, Catholics speak of a real transformation taking place in the infant where all guilt of original sin is removed, and grace is infused in the soul conforming the child to Christ. Through baptism, a person is born again, and the effects of the sacraments last eternally! By offering the rite to an infant, we are emphasizing that grace is an absolutely free gift, not even earned by our desire for conversion or our intellectual undertsanding of what we receive. This may confuse many Protestants, who believe that Catholics teach works righteousness. The Catholic Church holds as infallible, according to Scripture, the local council of Orange, and the Ecumenical Council of Trent that salvation is by grace alone. However, Catholics believe that with new birth comes growth, and that with baptism, Christ’s life life is infused inthe soul to produce faith and works. Faith without works cannot save, and works without faith cannot save. Yet, the whole process of salvation is initiated as a free gift of Christ. See my essay Justification: Protestant or Catholic for more detail on this subject. In the New Testament, Paul speaks of laying hands on people after baptism, and James speaks of annointing people. The word â€Å"Christ† literally means â€Å"annointed†. Catholics generally believe that in the sacrament of confirmation (laying on of hands and annointing), a person is confirmed in the faith. This second sacrament completes initiation in the Catholic Church and is closely connected theologically to baptism, though separated by years in time for many Catholics. Adult converts receive the two sacraments together. This is usually done in young adulthood, and provides an opportunity for a similar experience to Protestant young adult conversion at baptism. Why do Catholics use the Trinitarian formula, and not the name of Jesus Personally, I am not sure that God considers the name of Jesus alone as an invalid baptism. However, there are denominations and churches separated from Rome who baptize in the name of Jesus only because they reject the doctrine of the Trinity. We saw above that the Trinitarian formula for baptism is Scriptural in Matthew 28:19. We know from early Church writings that the Trinitarian formula was used from most ancient times, and the doctrine was accepted as the correct interpretation of scripture by the world-wide Church at several Ecumneical Councils. Thus, Catholics believe that the Trinitarian formula is revealed through Scripture and Sacred Tradition to be a if not the correct way to do baptism. Since the issue arose late historically, and was clear attempt to break the unity of the Church, Catholics do require a new baptism for those who join s from a community that did not use the Trinitarian formula. Why do Catholics sprinkle instead of immersing? Immersion is the proper way to do baptism to convey the full symbolism of the sacrament. Sprinkling in the early church was only used for emergencies, such as impending death. As the Church expanded into Northern Europe, it is highly probable that cold weather caused Christians to turn more often to sprinkling. Irish missionaries may have carried the practic e back southward. The Church defends that baptism by sprinkling is valid. At teh same time, Vatican II called for a renewal and retrieval of the meaning of sacramental gestures so that the fullness of what was conveyed in the New Testament is mediated in the signs. I have seen more and more Catholic churches building baptismal fonts large enought to immerse an adult. In the future, I expect immersion to once again become the norm. One final point When John began baptizing, he warned his Jewish siblings that God could make children of Abraham from the stones. Receiving his baptism of repentence was useless if one was not changed by it. God always respects our freedom, and we are always free to reject and act against the grace that is given us. We do this when we sin. Catholics believe that God initiates the salvation as an absolutely free and unmerited gift that can start in an infant. Catholics believe that Christ acts in the sacrament, so that we can never say that baptism does not have an effect. Christ promised to act in every valid baptism. Even Adolf Hitler (who was baptized Catholic) was changed by the sacrament. (Think how much worse he may have been if his life were never touched by grace! Yet, knowing that every baptism has an effect on the recipient, and trusting individually that the One who died for me and began a work for me in baptism wants to bring it to completion, I must respond to him! John’s warning to the children of Abraham is still true for Christians. We must, by God’s continued outpouring of grace, receive the Lordship of Christ and allow his will to shape our lives and contin ually change us. While baptism always has an effect, not everyone who has been bapized is absolutely assured slavation.